The Division of Ophthalmology at the Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center diagnoses and treats the complete spectrum of ophthalmological care, eye disease, and trauma. Quality eye care is offered by accomplished clinicians through outpatient clinics, inpatient hospitalization services, and emergency services.
Team
The Ophthalmology Division at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center provides care across the full spectrum of ophthalmology and eye diseases, ranging from hospitalized patients requiring preoperative preparation for eye surgery to patients hospitalized with urgent conditions requiring prompt treatment, such as patients following eye injuries, patients with corneal inflammation, and patients with eye infections following injuries or various surgical procedures.
The Division also provides inpatient care for patients following various elective eye surgeries who require monitoring daily or several times a day, such as patients following retinal or glaucoma surgery.
The Emergency Department at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center provides ophthalmology services 24 hours a day. Ophthalmologists in the Emergency Department provide emergency medical care to every patient presenting with an acute eye condition. The department treats patients with ocular trauma and injuries, acute eye inflammation, foreign bodies in the eye, chemical burns to the eyes, and cases of sudden vision loss due to various causes.
In addition, ophthalmologists in the Emergency Department provide consultations to other emergency physicians on a variety of issues, such as fundus examinations in patients with headaches to rule out increased intracranial pressure; consultations in cases of visual disturbances associated with neurological disorders; consultations with trauma physicians in cases of facial injuries involving fractures of the orbital bones; and other conditions.
Ophthalmology Division – Units and Clinics
The Ophthalmology Division operates a wide range of specialized clinics providing comprehensive diagnosis and advanced treatment for various eye diseases and conditions. Alongside these specialized services, the Division operates a General Ophthalmology Clinic.
The General Ophthalmology Clinic treats patients with a broad range of eye conditions, including ocular infections and inflammation, visual disturbances, and vision loss caused by various eye diseases.
The clinic provides treatment and follow-up care for patients with eye injuries, including foreign bodies, blunt trauma, and penetrating injuries, as well as patients previously treated in the Emergency Department or hospitalized in the Ophthalmology Department.
The clinic also refers patients for cataract surgery and provides postoperative follow-up until full recovery and eyeglass prescription when needed. Routine eye examinations include visual acuity testing, intraocular pressure measurement, and fundus examination.
The Retina and Vitreous Unit and Clinic specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of patients with retinal and vitreous disorders.
The Unit performs retinal laser procedures and advanced retinal surgery, including scleral buckling and complex vitrectomy procedures for retinal detachment, vitreous hemorrhage, and scar tissue formation.
Additional treatments include photodynamic therapy and thermal laser treatments for age-related macular degeneration.
The Unit also operates a specialized ophthalmic imaging service, providing anterior segment and retinal imaging, including fluorescein angiography to visualize retinal blood vessels.
Conditions Treated
-
Diabetic retinopathy.
-
Retinal degeneration.
-
Inflammatory retinal diseases.
-
Macular holes.
-
Epiretinal membranes.
-
Ocular trauma.
-
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
-
Retinal vascular occlusions.
-
Night blindness.
The Oculoplastics Unit (Eyelid, Lacrimal and Orbital Diseases) specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting the structures surrounding the eye, including the eyelids, tear drainage system, and orbit.
The Unit treats conditions such as tear duct obstruction, drooping eyelids (ptosis), chronic chalazion, orbital tumors, congenital eyelid abnormalities, and other eyelid and orbital disorders.
Main Areas of Treatment
Eyelid Disorders
-
Surgical correction of abnormal eyelid positions, including entropion and ectropion.
-
Correction of drooping eyelids (ptosis) in adults and children.
-
Laser and surgical treatment of eyelash abnormalities.
-
Correction of congenital eyelid malformations.
-
Laser and surgical treatment of eyelid tumors.
-
Eyelid reconstruction following trauma.
Lacrimal System Disorders
-
Treatment of dry eye conditions.
-
Laser and surgical treatment of tear duct obstruction.
Orbital Disorders
-
Surgical removal of orbital tumors.
-
Correction of proptosis (bulging eyes).
-
Treatment of orbital fractures.
-
Orbital reconstruction and fitting of ocular prostheses.
The Visual Electrophysiology Clinic at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov) offers a comprehensive range of electrophysiological tests to assess the function of the visual system, from the retina and visual pathways to the visual cortex of the brain.
Testing is performed using advanced diagnostic systems manufactured by Diagnosys, among the most sophisticated technologies available in this field.
The human visual system converts visual stimuli received by the retina into electrical signals, which travel through the optic nerves to the brain, where visual information is processed. Electrophysiological tests measure electrical activity in the eyes and brain to identify functional abnormalities and determine their location within the visual system.
A key advantage of electrophysiological testing is its objective nature, as results do not depend on patients' subjective responses, unlike visual acuity and visual field examinations.
The clinic evaluates patients with suspected retinal degenerative diseases, inherited visual disorders, optic nerve abnormalities, and unexplained vision loss. Testing is also performed in patients with ocular trauma, suspected drug-induced retinal toxicity, and those undergoing preoperative assessment to evaluate potential visual outcomes.
The Glaucoma Unit specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of patients with glaucoma or suspected glaucoma.
Diagnostic and monitoring services include computerized visual field testing and color imaging of the optic nerves. The Unit also provides laser treatments to reduce intraocular pressure and refers patients for glaucoma and cataract surgery when indicated.
Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases that cause irreversible damage to the optic nerve and is one of the leading causes of blindness worldwide. The condition is commonly associated with elevated intraocular pressure, although it may also develop in patients whose eye pressure is within the normal range.
Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to preserving vision. Treatment primarily focuses on reducing intraocular pressure to slow or prevent further optic nerve damage and vision loss.
Although existing optic nerve damage cannot be reversed, appropriate treatment and regular monitoring can help prevent disease progression and preserve remaining vision.
The Ophthalmic Imaging Unit provides advanced diagnostic imaging services, including Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), ocular ultrasound, fluorescein angiography, and indocyanine green (ICG) angiography.
Ocular Ultrasound
Ocular ultrasound is an important diagnostic imaging technique in ophthalmology, particularly because the eye and orbital structures consist primarily of soft tissues that can be effectively evaluated using ultrasound.
The service uses advanced ultrasound equipment to diagnose diseases and tumors affecting the eye and orbit. Imaging enables detailed examination of the anterior and posterior segments of the eye, as well as the optic nerves and extraocular muscles.
Ultrasound examinations are noninvasive, painless, relatively brief, and require no special preparation. They are performed by ophthalmologists with specialized expertise in ocular ultrasound.
The service also collaborates with the Medical Center's Imaging Division to perform color Doppler ultrasound examinations of the eye and orbit and provide comprehensive evaluation of imaging findings.
Types of Examinations
-
Posterior segment ultrasound: Used to assess the posterior structures of the eye, particularly following cataract or retinal surgery, infections, trauma, or suspected intraocular tumors.
-
Orbital ultrasound: Evaluates the extraocular muscles, optic nerves, and suspected orbital masses.
-
Anterior segment ultrasound: Used to assess inflammatory conditions, tumors, trauma-related changes, and postoperative abnormalities.
Conditions Diagnosed
Ocular ultrasound is particularly useful when opacities within the eye prevent direct examination of the retina and fundus.
It also assists in the diagnosis and evaluation of intraocular hemorrhage, degenerative changes, tumors and metastases, optic nerve disorders such as swelling or tumors, and extraocular muscle diseases associated with inflammation, endocrine disorders, or tumors.
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)
The Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Service provides advanced imaging of the retina and optic nerve using high-resolution OCT technology.
What Is an OCT Examination?
OCT is a noninvasive imaging examination that takes only a few minutes and is similar to having a photograph taken.
The technology uses near-infrared light to scan the retina and generate detailed cross-sectional images of its layers. The examination does not involve X-ray radiation and provides essential information about the structure of the macula and optic nerve.
The clinic is equipped with advanced OCT technology capable of producing highly detailed, near-histological images of retinal structures.
OCT has become a routine and essential diagnostic tool in ophthalmology, particularly in the fields of retina, glaucoma, uveitis, and neuro-ophthalmology. The examination is quick and accessible and can also be successfully performed in young children.
Clinical Applications
OCT plays a central role in diagnosing eye diseases, understanding structural changes, and monitoring disease progression and treatment response.
It is particularly important in the diagnosis and follow-up of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
Additional applications include:
-
Retinal vascular disorders, including retinal vein and artery occlusions.
-
Diabetic retinopathy.
-
Inflammatory eye diseases.
-
Inherited retinal disorders, including retinitis pigmentosa.
-
Complications following cataract surgery.
-
Ocular trauma.
-
Glaucoma and other optic nerve disorders.
-
Neuro-ophthalmological conditions.
The Pediatric Eye Health Center at Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital provides comprehensive diagnosis, treatment, and surgical care for a wide range of eye conditions in infants, children, and adolescents.
The Center is equipped with advanced ophthalmic technologies and offers specialized care across all major ophthalmology subspecialties, including cornea and cataract, glaucoma, retina, strabismus and amblyopia, uveitis, and oculoplastics (eyelids, orbit, and lacrimal system). All examinations and treatments are adapted to the child's age and developmental needs.
The Center's specialists treat a broad range of pediatric eye disorders, from retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) to ocular trauma and eye tumors.
Specialized Surgical Care
The Center performs surgical procedures for various pediatric eye conditions, including:
-
Pediatric glaucoma.
-
Congenital and acquired cataracts.
-
Retinal disorders.
-
Tear duct abnormalities and obstructions.
-
Strabismus, including severe and complex cases associated with cranial nerve palsies or trauma.
The Center also provides treatment for amblyopia (lazy eye) through visual rehabilitation, manages focusing and accommodation disorders, and supports children with low vision.
Pediatric Ophthalmology Consultations
The Center's medical team provides daily ophthalmology consultations throughout Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital.
These services include eye examinations for children admitted to the Emergency Department, consultations for patients with neurological and neurosurgical conditions, and ophthalmic care for children hospitalized in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit.
The Glaucoma Research Center focuses on developing and evaluating advanced technologies for the early detection and effective treatment of glaucoma, one of the leading causes of irreversible blindness worldwide.
One of the Center's main research areas is telemedicine and teleophthalmology, exploring the use of wireless technologies to enable remote diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of glaucoma.
The Dry Eye Center at the Ophthalmology Division of Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov) specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of dry eye disease, offering advanced diagnostic technologies and a wide range of innovative treatments.
Diagnostic evaluations include assessment of tear gland function, meibomian gland function in the eyelids, tear film quality, inflammatory markers, and other factors contributing to dry eye disease.
The Center provides personalized treatment for varying degrees of dry eye severity, using advanced therapeutic approaches, including:
-
Intense Pulsed Light (IPL) therapy.
-
Controlled thermal treatment of the eyelids.
-
Eyelid margin cleaning and meibomian gland expression.
-
Autologous serum eye drops.
-
Amniotic membrane therapy.
Treatment is tailored to each patient's condition and the underlying causes of dry eye disease.
Uveitis is an inflammatory eye condition classified according to the location of inflammation. Anterior uveitis, the most common form, affects the iris and sometimes the ciliary body. Intermediate uveitis primarily involves the vitreous, while posterior uveitis affects the retina or choroid. Panuveitis involves inflammation throughout the eye. Other inflammatory conditions, such as scleritis, may affect the sclera (the white outer layer of the eye).
Symptoms vary according to the location and severity of the inflammation and may affect one or both eyes. Common symptoms include redness, eye pain, sensitivity to light, headaches, reduced vision, and floaters. Anterior uveitis may also cause changes in pupil shape or iris color.
Uveitis can have various causes, although in many cases the underlying cause remains unknown. It may be associated with autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, including arthritis, sarcoidosis, and inflammatory bowel disease, or with infections caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi. Uveitis may also develop following eye surgery or trauma or occur as an isolated ocular condition. In some cases, other diseases, including tumors, may produce symptoms that mimic uveitis.
The Uveitis Service at Ichilov specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of inflammatory eye diseases. Diagnostic evaluation may include laboratory tests, ophthalmic imaging, and additional investigations as needed, in collaboration with specialists from other medical disciplines.
Treatment is tailored to the type and severity of the condition and may include eye drops, injections, and systemic medications. In certain cases, cataract, glaucoma, or retinal surgery may also be required. Because of the potential for disease recurrence and treatment-related side effects, regular and sometimes long-term ophthalmic follow-up is essential.
The Combined Clinic for Inflammatory Eye and Joint Diseases is a joint initiative of the Ophthalmology Department and the Rheumatology Institute at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov).
Inflammatory eye diseases may be the first sign of an underlying systemic condition or may occur alongside other disorders, particularly inflammatory joint diseases. Several autoimmune and inflammatory conditions are associated with an increased risk of both ocular and joint involvement.
These diseases can significantly affect patients' quality of life, functional abilities, and vision. Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment are essential to preventing complications and improving long-term outcomes.
Because these conditions often affect multiple organ systems, their management requires a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach. The clinic provides coordinated diagnostic evaluation and treatment by specialists in ophthalmology, rheumatology, and internal medicine.
Who Is the Clinic For?
The clinic evaluates and treats patients with the following conditions:
-
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
-
Sjögren's syndrome.
-
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
-
Spondyloarthropathies, including:
-
Ankylosing spondylitis.
-
Psoriatic arthritis.
-
Reactive arthritis.
-
Arthritis associated with inflammatory bowel disease.
-
-
Behçet's disease.
-
Sarcoidosis.
-
Vasculitis, including granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly Wegener's granulomatosis) and polyarteritis nodosa.
-
Other inflammatory eye diseases requiring comprehensive systemic evaluation.
Multidisciplinary Diagnosis and Treatment
Patients are evaluated jointly by ophthalmologists and rheumatologists during a coordinated consultation. The medical team reviews the patient's condition, determines the necessary diagnostic investigations, assesses disease activity, and develops an individualized treatment plan.
Successful management relies on close collaboration between the clinic's multidisciplinary team and the patient's referring physician or community healthcare provider, ensuring continuity and coordination of care.
The Neuro-Ophthalmology Unit specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of patients with neurological conditions affecting the eyes and visual system.
The Unit includes the Neuro-Ophthalmology Clinic and the Center for Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (Pseudotumor Cerebri).
The Unit evaluates and treats a wide range of visual and neurological symptoms, including transient or persistent visual disturbances, partial or complete vision loss, visual field defects, and eye movement disorders that may cause sudden-onset strabismus or double vision.
Other conditions treated include drooping eyelids (ptosis), abnormalities in pupil size, and increased intracranial pressure causing swelling of the optic nerve heads (papilledema).
Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (IIH)
The Center for Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov) specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of increased intracranial pressure and its effects on the visual system, particularly the optic nerves.
Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (IIH), also known as Pseudotumor Cerebri, is a condition characterized by increased pressure inside the skull without an identifiable underlying cause.
Common symptoms include headaches, transient blurred vision, pulsatile tinnitus (a rhythmic whooshing or buzzing sound in the head), and occasionally double vision. One of the most significant clinical findings is papilledema, swelling of the optic nerve head, which may lead to irreversible vision loss if not diagnosed and treated promptly.
Risk Factors
IIH is particularly common among young women with overweight or obesity, with obesity being a well-established risk factor.
Certain medications, including tetracycline antibiotics and some acne treatments, have also been associated with increased intracranial pressure.
During the diagnostic evaluation, other potential causes of elevated intracranial pressure, such as cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, must be excluded.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis involves a comprehensive ophthalmic examination, including fundus examination to assess the optic nerves, brain imaging to rule out other causes of increased intracranial pressure, and a lumbar puncture to measure cerebrospinal fluid opening pressure.
Headaches accompanied by blurred vision, double vision, or other visual disturbances require prompt medical evaluation, particularly in individuals with known risk factors.
Treatment and Follow-Up
Treatment aims to reduce intracranial pressure, relieve symptoms, and prevent permanent damage to the optic nerves and vision.
Management is tailored to the severity of the condition and may include weight loss, medication, and regular monitoring of visual function.
In severe cases, particularly when vision deteriorates rapidly or medical treatment is insufficient, surgical intervention may be considered. Procedures may include optic nerve sheath fenestration to relieve pressure on the optic nerve or cerebrospinal fluid shunting to reduce intracranial pressure.
Because IIH may persist or recur even after symptoms improve, long-term ophthalmic monitoring is essential to preserve vision and detect disease progression.
The Ophthalmology Division at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov) operates an extensive Clinical Research Unit dedicated to conducting and managing a wide range of clinical studies.
In recognition of its high research standards, the Unit is the only center in Israel that is a member of the European Vision Institute Clinical Research Network (EVICR.net), a European organization promoting investigator-initiated clinical research in ophthalmology while maintaining rigorous safety and quality standards.
Patients participating in clinical trials may receive innovative medications or undergo advanced medical procedures under close medical supervision. Throughout the study, participants receive ongoing support from a dedicated research coordinator, with examinations and treatments performed by senior ophthalmologists.
Patients are referred to clinical trials both from the Medical Center's ophthalmology clinics and by ophthalmologists from other healthcare institutions.
Participation in Clinical Trials
Before enrollment, each patient's medical condition is evaluated against the study's eligibility criteria.
The first and most important step is obtaining the patient's informed consent. The physician responsible for the study provides a detailed explanation of its purpose, procedures, potential benefits, and risks, and answers all questions before the patient decides whether to participate.
Participation is entirely voluntary. Patients may withdraw from a clinical trial at any stage, without affecting their right to receive appropriate alternative medical care.
A cataract is a clouding of the eye's natural lens that can cause reduced visual acuity, blurred vision, glare, and other visual disturbances.
The most common cause of cataracts is the natural aging process. Other causes include eye injuries, congenital or acquired eye diseases, such as intraocular inflammation, and certain medications, particularly corticosteroids.
In the early stages, cataracts may cause changes in eyeglass prescriptions. As the condition progresses, vision may deteriorate to a point where glasses can no longer provide adequate correction.
Currently, cataracts cannot be prevented or reversed with medication. Surgical removal of the cloudy lens and replacement with an artificial intraocular lens is the only effective treatment.
The decision to undergo surgery is made jointly by the ophthalmologist and patient, based on the extent of visual impairment, the patient's needs, and individual risk factors.
Laser-Assisted Cataract Surgery at Ichilov
Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov) was the first public hospital in Israel to offer laser-assisted cataract surgery.
Since 2024, the hospital has used an advanced laser system that enables automated, highly precise performance of several key surgical steps. Laser assistance improves surgical precision and reduces the amount of energy required to break up the cloudy lens.
Cataract surgery at Ichilov is available to patients insured by all Israeli health maintenance organizations (HMOs).
To schedule surgery, patients require a referral from an ophthalmologist and an HMO authorization form (Form 17). A preoperative assessment is arranged before the procedure.
The surgery is provided without additional payment, including the use of laser technology.
Success Rates and Possible Complications
Cataract surgery has a high success rate, estimated at approximately 95%–98%.
However, as with any surgical procedure, complications may occur. Potential complications include postoperative intraocular infection, corneal clouding, bleeding, retinal tears or detachment, and improper positioning of the implanted intraocular lens.
In approximately 10%–30% of cases, clouding of the posterior lens capsule may develop months after surgery, resulting in reduced vision. This condition, known as posterior capsule opacification (PCO), can usually be treated with a brief, painless outpatient laser procedure (YAG laser capsulotomy).
Patients with additional eye diseases, such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, or diabetic eye disease, may experience only partial improvement in vision even after technically successful cataract surgery.
The Cornea and Anterior Segment Unit is part of the Ophthalmology Division at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov).
The Unit specializes in the diagnosis and surgical treatment of corneal and anterior segment disorders. Procedures include corneal transplantation, pterygium surgery, and removal of tumors affecting the cornea and conjunctiva.
The Unit works closely with the Ichilov Eye Bank, which manages the procurement, evaluation, preservation, and allocation of donated corneal tissue for transplantation.
The Role of the Cornea
The cornea is the transparent tissue covering the front of the eye. It plays a vital role in focusing light and enabling clear vision.
Inherited disorders, injuries, infections, and previous eye surgeries may damage the cornea, affecting its transparency or shape and leading to blurred vision, severe visual impairment, or blindness.
When the cornea can no longer function properly, corneal transplantation may restore vision by replacing the damaged tissue with healthy donor tissue.
Advances in surgical techniques now allow surgeons to replace only the affected layers of the cornea in many cases, rather than performing a full-thickness transplant.
Ichilov Eye Bank
The Ichilov Eye Bank is responsible for coordinating all stages of corneal donation and preparation for transplantation, including donor identification, tissue procurement, laboratory testing, preservation, documentation, and matching donor tissue to patients and surgical procedures.
The Eye Bank receives donated corneas and other ocular tissues, primarily from donors at the Medical Center, as well as corneal tissue supplied by other eye banks in Israel and the United States.
All donated tissue undergoes comprehensive medical and laboratory screening to assess its quality and safety, including testing for infectious diseases. Corneas are then preserved under controlled conditions until transplantation.
The Eye Bank operates in accordance with Israeli Ministry of Health regulations and international quality and safety standards.
More than 100 corneal transplants are performed annually at Ichilov. Corneal tissue is also used in other ophthalmic procedures and medical research.
Corneal Donation and Transplantation
Corneas are donated after death, subject to the required consent and medical eligibility criteria.
Following donation, each cornea undergoes a series of laboratory and clinical assessments to determine whether it is suitable for transplantation and which type of surgical procedure it can support.
The Eye Bank works in coordination with ophthalmic surgeons to match available donor tissue with patients awaiting transplantation. Corneas may be allocated for procedures performed at Ichilov or at other hospitals throughout Israel.
Corneal transplantation is one of the most commonly performed tissue transplantation procedures worldwide and can significantly improve vision and quality of life.
However, demand for donor corneas often exceeds availability, and patients may wait several months or, in some cases, more than a year for suitable tissue.
Corneal donation can restore sight, improve independence, and make a profound difference in the lives of patients with severe corneal disease.
The Ophthalmology Division at Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center (Ichilov) operates an Optometry Service and a specialized Low Vision Clinic, working in close collaboration with the Division's ophthalmologists and other medical teams.
Optometry Service
Established in 1961, alongside the founding of Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, the Optometry Service has been an integral part of the Ophthalmology Division ever since.
The service is staffed by experienced optometrists licensed by the Israeli Ministry of Health. They perform comprehensive vision examinations, identify refractive errors, and provide appropriate optical solutions to correct and improve vision.
The service also evaluates patients with significant visual impairment (low vision), including vision loss caused by various eye diseases. These patients may benefit from specialized optical aids and visual rehabilitation solutions.
Low Vision Clinic
Vision loss and visual impairment can significantly affect quality of life, independence, and the ability to perform everyday activities. However, in many cases, specialized rehabilitation techniques and assistive devices can help patients make better use of their remaining vision.
The Low Vision Clinic at Ichilov provides specialized assessment, treatment, and rehabilitation solutions for patients with moderate to severe visual impairment.
The clinic is staffed by experienced optometrists specializing in low vision rehabilitation. Comprehensive optometric examinations and specialized functional vision assessments are performed to determine the extent of visual impairment and its impact on daily activities.
The clinic evaluates patients with conditions affecting central visual acuity or peripheral visual fields, including:
-
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
-
Retinitis pigmentosa.
-
Glaucoma.
-
Other retinal and optic nerve disorders affecting visual function.
Based on the results of these assessments, the team recommends personalized optical aids, advanced assistive technologies, and rehabilitation solutions designed to maximize remaining vision, improve daily functioning, and support greater independence.